Inequality & Power: The
Economics of Class is available at the publisher’s (see Routledge.com) or at
amazon.com, Barnes & Noble, etc. Here is an excerpt (from Ch.
12 Confronting Inequality and Class, pp. 174-178):
Community and Biosphere
Connections between the increasingly threatening global ecological crisis of
these times and the class system of the modern market economy are
seldom highlighted in mainstream public discussion, even as
awareness of the crisis heightens with news of each new
environmental catastrophe. The connections are profound, however,
and critical for any kind of satisfactory approach to the crisis
if there is to be one. Increased recognition these days that a
truly worldwide ecological crisis of sustainability is in progress
raises real questions about all of modern industrial life and the
social features that seem to go with it.
What is increasingly obvious is that high-output production
per se -- the massively
energy-using materials-transformation process that is globalized
mass-production -- is the proximate source of the crisis. The
unavoidable entropic by-products -- air and water pollution; soil,
forest, fishery depletion; ecosystem imbalance and species
extinction; environmental deterioration of all kinds -- accumulate to levels
that cannot be sustainably accommodated by nature. The result is a
critical threat not only to a great variety of living species but
to human life itself.
Features of normal business competition in markets that are
well-known and increasingly widely acknowledged are importantly to
blame for all of this. First, it has been well understood by
mainstream economists since early in the twentieth century that
the problem of "externalities" is inherent in market systems. Market prices can only
reflect costs that are themselves determined by the pricing of
inputs in markets. Those costs that are not so determined do not
get "internalized" into products' prices, and the latter then are
distorted, as is product consumption in light of those distorted
prices. The pollution and resource, environmental and ecological
deterioration that arise in production for markets are the best
known examples of such "side effects": they are real costs of
production, and since markets cannot handle them, they go
uncorrected as the goods the production of which causes them are
over-consumed.
Equally well-known, albeit somewhat less widely
acknowledged, is the fact that only public action and policy can
prevent, repair or otherwise correct for such problems. The market
itself can initiate neither regulation nor incentives otherwise to
correct or prevent environmental destruction, these require public
action to “internalize” the costs involved, since the latter
remain otherwise externalities. Traditional government approaches
include simple regulation, or pollution or environmental damage
taxation, or subsidization of pollution or environmental damage
control, as means of inducing the necessary business and/or
consumer behavior. Conservative economists have pressed government
environmental policy for the creation of novel property rights and
markets as alternatives to the traditional approaches, for
example, "cap and trade" systems in which pollution rights are
created that can be exchanged in markets. It is not clear that the
benefits of such “market-like” approaches over traditional
approaches like regulation or taxation/subsidization are at all
significant -- and even in such approaches, major government
“interference” is required for creating and enforcing the property
rights, overseeing compliance, regulating pollution levels and
exchange of pollution rights, etc.
Even less widely acknowledged is the fact that appropriate
levels of policy action are difficult or perhaps even impossible
in the social, cultural and political environment of modern market
systems, for government environmental policy in such systems will
always tend to provide less than is necessary for real
sustainability, just as many environmentalists have long argued.
The reasons boil down to essentially this: The capitalist market
system is growth compulsive,
ever endlessly expansionist, propelled into new geographies and
locations, new and more productive methods of production, new
products and new variations on old ones, and perhaps most
egregiously, new consumer wants and new ways of expanding them. A
continually rising flow of new materials, processes and products
is the result, and with them even more ecologically damaging "side
effects". While government could perhaps, in principle, correct
for the latter effects, it does not because its most critical role
in a capitalist market economy arguably is not to regulate or
oversee things in the public interest but to facilitate the growth
compulsion of business: at every possible instance then,
government in this economy tends to side with the need for growth
not ecological sustainability.
A complete account of why this is so would be beyond the
scope of this book, but a couple simple points are fairly clear.
Government is responsive most to business, as we made clear in
Chapter Eight. Business is, in general, growth compulsive in the
sense that dynamic market competition rewards those businesses
most committed to growth. Those businesses that are not so
committed fall out along the way sooner or later, while on the
other hand, government is most responsive to those that are
biggest and have therefore the strongest growth compulsion. As for
the rest of government's constituency, jobs depend on growth in a
system that can find no other ways of providing them or of
providing economic security otherwise, so most other people (and
politicians) generally tend to side with business on the need for
economic growth as well.
But the class system of economic inequality and its
associated power structures in modern market economies are a
critical part of this problem, and the problem goes much deeper
than merely the politics of growth vs. the environment. Analyses
of the breakdown of developed societies due to ecological
unsustainability in the historical and pre-historic past suggest
that the structures of social class are important elements in most
social collapses. The
ecologically suicidal consequences of those structures arguably
are compounded multi-fold in the social and economic context of
capitalist market systems.
First, while it is widely understood that rampant consumerism in individual
behavior is the "ultimate cause" of resource depletion and
ecological destruction of all kinds, consumerism is itself a
consequence of more fundamental things. Certainly the advertising
and marketing that are pervasive features of modern business,
devoted as is the latter to expansionism in competitive markets --
and the hegemonic culture of consumerism now built upon this
commercialism, as discussed in Chapter Nine -- are importantly to
blame here. Yet that still does not quite get to the heart of the
matter. For in order to be successful as business investments,
advertising and marketing efforts must successfully appeal to
other propensities in people than the simple need for goods and
services per se, for
the idea is get people to want more yet. It must
therefore be asked, to what propensities do those efforts so
successfully appeal?
In modern market systems, people are well-prepared to be
wholly receptive to, and to seek and find various gratifications
in, consumerist behaviors, even aside from the advertising and
marketing environment in which they are surrounded. To begin with,
because most people as wage-employees are subject to employers'
power as analyzed in detail in this book, they must seek their
personal fulfillment elsewhere than at work, insofar as the time
spent there, the projects undertaken there, are not their own but
their bosses'. As we discussed earlier, this kind of alienation
extends as well into people's social lives generally, and indeed
into their intellectual lives and their relationships with the
natural world.
On the other hand, of course, businesses are all too
willing to offer customers gratifications of all sorts for profit,
i.e., in the form of commodities to be purchased. Thus it is
natural in modern market systems for people to seek commodified
gratifications in compensation for lives unfulfilled at work and
in community, especially where other, non-commodified
gratifications are increasingly hard to find (that is, in public
goods consumption or in the commons). Consumerism thus has roots
in the alienation lying at the very heart of production in modern
capitalist market systems. The
commercial advertising and marketing industries merely aggravate
people's need to seek compensatory gratification in consumption,
finding easy targets as they appeal to, exploit and encourage
consumerist approaches in people's pursuit of personal
fulfillment.
Moreover, pecuniary
emulation and
conspicuous consumption, which are probably inevitable
behavioral features of any class system, are strongly compounded
in modern market systems by people's need to pursue compensatory
gratification in personal consumption, as well as by the
individualism and competitive striving and ambition such systems
also induce in people. Pecuniary emulation and conspicuous
consumption are key elements of the "consumer psyche" to which all
advertising and marketing efforts strongly and overtly appeal.
Thus it is commonplace in advertising to encourage emulation of
other consumers who are at or above one's own level in society's
economic status hierarchy -- the "Joneses" absolutely must be
"kept up with" or passed if possible, and are at any rate a
necessary benchmark for comparing and measuring one's own status
position. And of course this is not possible without the specifics
of one's own possessions, like those of everyone else, being at
least as conspicuous to others' eyes as theirs are to one's own.
The advertising and marketing appeal to these propensities is
perhaps nowhere better exemplified than in the clothing,
automobile, housing and related industries.
Consumerism therefore is not the "ultimate" source of
today's global ecological crisis, but only the most immediately
obvious one. It has its roots in the alienation and pecuniary
emulation already recognized as part of this system long before
the historic rise of the advertising and marketing industries.
Individual efforts to resist these propensities in people's
personal lives will certainly help the cause of dealing with the
ecological crisis -- ecological sensitivity, conservation, and
humility and moderation in people's personal consumption are,
after all, the ultimate goal. But that goal is unlikely to be
reached except for a minority when the larger context of the class
system of the market economy is still unchanged.
Consider too the implications of conspicuous consumption
and pecuniary emulation for the politics of dealing with the
ecological crisis. Public action on the ecological crisis will
require, of course, a broad and strong constituency favoring it,
but that will that be even more difficult to attain than is
suggested by the politics of "growth vs. the environment".
Emulation by the broader population is, of course, emulation of
precisely those with the greatest material consumption. It is
moreover emulation of those whose values, views and behaviors most
tend to conservatism in
the face of developments requiring a wholly different attitude.
For it is the most affluent who have, first, the greatest material
interest in the status quo,
insofar as their positions most depend upon carrying things on as
they are, not upon changing them. And it is the most affluent who
are, second, most able by virtue of their wealth to avoid the many
inconveniences and life disruptions arising from the ecological
crisis, and who are accordingly least inclined to be concerned
about its material consequences. These then are the kinds of
values and attitudes most emulated by the broader population: not
a promising political constituency for dealing with the crisis,
even assuming the emergence of strong leadership from among those
of the powerful classes.
In history and in pre-history too, class societies have
apparently been most harsh on their natural environments and at
the same time least adaptable to the harsh consequences. In effect, the modern
capitalist market society has greatly magnified at least the first
of these two realities: its footprint on the biosphere has been
incomparably greater than that of all other societies combined to
date. While it is heralded for its adaptability in other ways,
there seems little ground for confidence in its ability to
successfully adapt its ways to the requisites of ecological
sustainability in a world it has itself so profoundly dislocated. Contrary to the drift of
most mainstream discussion on the matter, the problem of social
class is a fundamental element of both the global ecological
crisis of these times and of the modern market society's
difficulty dealing with it: the crisis will not be dealt with
satisfactorily unless that problem is engaged as well.
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